Decades of research are revealing how the brain forms — or doesn't form — mental images. From Galton to fMRI, science is beginning to unravel what makes each mind unique.
From a Victorian observation to neuroimaging studies, the understanding of aphantasia has come a long way.
Francis Galton first documents differences in mental visualization ability in his statistical study of mental imagery.
Patient MX loses the ability to visualize after cardiac surgery. Dr. Adam Zeman of the University of Exeter investigates the case and publishes the findings.
Zeman coins the term "aphantasia" (from Greek a- "without" + phantasia "imagination") and publishes a seminal study in the journal Cortex, describing 21 cases.
First fMRI evidence: aphantasics show reduced activation in the visual cortex during imagination tasks, confirming a neurological basis.
Population studies indicate that aphantasia affects approximately 3–5% of the world population — much more common than previously thought.
Research explores the relationship between aphantasia and autobiographical memory, creativity, emotional processing, and decision-making.
Mental visualization involves a chain of communication between brain regions. In aphantasia, this chain works differently.
Neural signal flow
The prefrontal cortex sends the command. The frontoparietal network relays it. The visual cortex V1 activates and generates the image. You "see" the apple in your mind.
The prefrontal cortex sends the command normally. The frontoparietal network relays it. But the visual cortex V1 doesn't respond the same way. The concept exists — the image doesn't.
Each study brings new pieces to the aphantasia puzzle. Here are some of the most significant findings.
of the population has aphantasia
Much more common than previously believed. It's estimated that hundreds of millions of people live without voluntary mental images.
discover the term online
Most aphantasics spend decades without knowing their experience is different, until finding the concept online.
Aphantasics tend to recall fewer sensory details of past events, but maintain factual memory intact.
There is no correlation between aphantasia and IQ. Aphantasics demonstrate equivalent cognitive performance in standardized tests.
Many aphantasics report dreams with visual images — suggesting that the brain "hardware" works, but voluntary access is blocked.
Research on aphantasia is just beginning. These are some of the most important open questions.
Preliminary studies suggest a hereditary component: first-degree relatives of aphantasics are more likely to also have the condition. But specific genes have not yet been identified.
Prosopagnosia — difficulty recognizing faces — appears with increased frequency in aphantasics. Researchers investigate whether they share neural mechanisms.
Cases like MX show that aphantasia can be acquired after brain injury. Studies explore whether neurofeedback techniques could restore visualization — but there is no conclusive evidence yet.
Aphantasics show lower physiological reactivity (heart rate, skin conductance) to imagined emotional scenarios, but respond normally to real visual stimuli.
The studies that underpin current knowledge about aphantasia.
Zeman, A., Dewar, M. & Della Sala, S. (2015).
Lives without imagery — Congenital aphantasia.
Cortex, 73, 378–380.
doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.05.019Keogh, R. & Pearson, J. (2018).
The blind mind: No sensory visual imagery in aphantasia.
Cortex, 105, 53–60.
doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.10.012Dawes, A.J., Keogh, R., Andrillon, T. & Pearson, J. (2020).
A cognitive profile of multi-sensory imagery, memory and dreaming in aphantasia.
Scientific Reports, 10, 10022.
doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-65705-7Milton, F., Fulford, J., Dance, C. et al. (2021).
Behavioral and neural signatures of visual imagery vividness extremes: Aphantasia vs. hyperphantasia.
Cerebral Cortex Communications, 2(2), tgab035.
doi: 10.1093/texcom/tgab035Dance, C.J., Ipser, A. & Simner, J. (2022).
The prevalence of aphantasia (imagery weakness) in the general population.
Consciousness and Cognition, 97, 103243.
doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103243The VVIQ is the most widely used questionnaire in science to measure the vividness of mental images. It takes less than 5 minutes.
Take the VVIQ test